The authors are George J. Williams, New York State University, Stony Brook.
The book «Introduction to Psychology». Authors — R.L. Atkinson, R.S. Atkinson, E.E. Smith, D.J. Boehm, S. Nolen-Hoeksema. Under the general editorship of V.P. Zinchenko. 15th international edition, St. Petersburg, Prime Eurosign, 2007.
Yes, from a narrow biological point of view, we are selfish, but this should also be taken into account when discussing human behavior, ethics and related topics (Williams, 1996). The selfishness of our behavior is laid down at the genetic level. Extreme selfishness is a necessary condition for the existence of the genes themselves. Only the best of them are passed down from generation to generation. To do this, they must contribute to the formation of the most complete organism (animal or human), which in the future will be able to pass on its genes to more offspring than other members of the population. In this genetic competition, those individuals who, having managed to survive to adulthood, successfully compete for the resources necessary for reproduction (i.e., food, habitats, partners, etc.) win.
Thus, we are undoubtedly selfish, but this does not mean that we cannot be selfless in the ordinary sense of the word. People really often help each other in various life situations. To understand such behavior from a biological point of view, it is necessary to take into account the conditions in which it manifests itself. The most obvious example of caring is the attitude of parents towards offspring. The natural explanation for this behavior is that genes will not be passed on if parents do not help their offspring: mammals must nurse their young; birds — to bring food to the chicks; plants — to supply the optimal amount of nutrients to the seeds. However, such care is by no means some kind of general desire of adults to help younger ones. There are mechanisms by which parents can identify their babies and help them specifically.
If reproduction occurs sexually and the partners are not closely related, then the offspring receive half of the genes from each parent.
From the parent’s point of view, a child is genetically half as important as itself, and the success of reproduction in offspring is almost as important to gene transmission as one’s own reproduction. In addition, this partial genetic identity extends to all relatives, not just descendants. Therefore, from the point of view of genetic egoism, the caring behavior of the individual in relation to all relatives, and not just to offspring, will be natural. Such behavior is determined by the so-called kin selection — the innate ability to perceive signals that reflect the degree and likelihood of kinship. Whether or not an individual can identify a genealogical connection, he is likely to instinctively prefer relatives to non-relatives and close relatives (parents, children, siblings) to more distant ones.
In birds, a male whose mate has laid eggs in the nest may gain an evolutionary advantage by incubating the eggs and rearing the chicks. But can he be quite sure that the partner was not fertilized by another male and that it is his offspring that will hatch from all the eggs? In many species of birds it often happens that a female, with or without her consent, is impregnated by an outside male. Males of such species are especially attentive to the behavior of their girlfriends and are more diligent than others in expelling rivals from their territory. It is assumed that males of those species in which, on average, 10% of the eggs are fertilized by rivals, are less conscientious in their duties towards chicks than males of those species in which adultery never occurs.
Kin selection is one of the factors that determines what is called selfless behavior. Another such factor is mutual assistance between unrelated individuals, counting on an immediate or possible future benefit for each of them. So-called selfless behavior can be caused by selfish calculation or manipulation by other individuals of kindred feelings or other altruistic or cooperative instincts. Female birds, as well as males, cannot be sure that the chicks are their own, due to laying eggs, while the owners of the nest are briefly absent for food (Sayler, 1992). This happens in many species. One female derives a genetic benefit by exploiting the parental instincts of another. Deception and manipulation are especially widespread in human society, which is explained by the possibility of verbal contact between people. According to Shakespeare, Henry V addressed his army: «We are a troop of brothers.» Feminist leaders talk about «sisterhood». Lies and manipulation of other people’s emotions, of course, can be both justified and unjustified.