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Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) was an English naturalist and traveler who laid the foundations of modern evolutionary theory and the direction of evolutionary thought that bears his name (Darwinism). Grandson of Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood.
In his theory, the first detailed exposition of which was published in 1859 in the book «The Origin of Species» (full title: «The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Survival of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life»), Darwin attached paramount importance in evolution to natural selection and indefinite variability.
short biography
Study and travel
Born February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury. Studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. In 1827 he entered the University of Cambridge, where he studied theology for three years. In 1831, after graduating from university, Darwin, as a naturalist, went on a trip around the world on the expedition ship of the Royal Navy, the Beagle, from where he returned to England only on October 2, 1836. During the trip, Darwin visited the island of Tenerife, the Cape Verde Islands, the coast of Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Tierra del Fuego, Tasmania and the Cocos Islands, from where he brought a large number of observations. The results were outlined in the works «Diary of a naturalist’s research» (The Journal of a Naturalist, 1839), «The Zoology of Voyage on the Beagle» (Zoology of the Voyage on the Beagle, 1840), «The structure and distribution of coral reefs» (The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs1842);
Scientific activity
In 1838-1841. Darwin was the secretary of the Geological Society of London. In 1839 he married, and in 1842 the couple moved from London to Down (Kent), where they began to live permanently. Here Darwin led the secluded and measured life of a scientist and writer.
From 1837, Darwin began to keep a diary in which he entered data on breeds of domestic animals and plant varieties, as well as considerations about natural selection. In 1842 he wrote the first essay on the origin of species. Beginning in 1855, Darwin corresponded with the American botanist A. Gray, to whom he presented his ideas two years later. In 1856, under the influence of the English geologist and naturalist C. Lyell, Darwin began to prepare a third, expanded version of the book. In June 1858, when the work was half done, I received a letter from the English naturalist A. R. Wallace with the manuscript of the latter’s article. In this article, Darwin discovered an abridged exposition of his own theory of natural selection. The two naturalists independently and simultaneously developed identical theories. Both were influenced by T. R. Malthus’ work on population; both were aware of the views of Lyell, both studied the fauna, flora and geological formations of the island groups and found significant differences between the species inhabiting them. Darwin sent Wallace’s manuscript to Lyell along with his own essay, as well as outlines of his second version (1844) and a copy of his letter to A. Gray (1857). Lyell turned to the English botanist Joseph Hooker for advice, and on July 1, 1859, they together presented both works to the Linnean Society in London.
Late work
In 1859, Darwin published The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life.On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life), where he showed the variability of plant and animal species, their natural origin from earlier species.
In 1868, Darwin published his second work, The Change in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants.The Variation of Animals and Plant under Domestification), which includes many examples of the evolution of organisms. In 1871, another important work of Darwin appeared — «The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection» (The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex), where Darwin gave arguments in favor of the animal origin of man. Darwin’s other notable works include Barnacles (Monograph on the Cirripedia, 1851-1854); «Pollination in orchids» (The Fertilization of Orchids, 1862); «The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals» (The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872); «The action of cross-pollination and self-pollination in the plant world» (The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom.
Darwin and religion
C. Darwin came from a non-conformist environment. Although some members of his family were freethinkers who openly rejected traditional religious beliefs, he himself did not at first question the literal truth of the Bible. He went to an Anglican school, then studied Anglican theology at Cambridge to become a pastor, and was fully convinced by William Paley’s teleological argument that the intelligent design seen in nature proves the existence of God. However, his faith began to waver while traveling on the Beagle. He questioned what he saw, wondering, for example, at the beautiful deep-sea creatures created in such depths in which no one could enjoy their view, shuddering at the sight of a wasp paralyzing caterpillars, which should serve as living food for its larvae. In the last example, he saw a clear contradiction to Paley’s ideas about the all-good world order. While traveling on the Beagle, Darwin was still quite orthodox and could well invoke the moral authority of the Bible, but gradually began to view the creation story, as presented in the Old Testament, as false and untrustworthy.
Upon his return, he set about collecting evidence for the variability of species. He knew that his religious naturalist friends regarded such views as heresy, undermining marvelous explanations of the social order, and he knew that such revolutionary ideas would be met with particular inhospitality at a time when the position of the Anglican Church was under fire from radical dissenters and atheists. Secretly developing his theory of natural selection, Darwin even wrote about religion as a tribal survival strategy, but still believed in God as the supreme being who determines the laws of this world. His faith gradually weakened over time and, with the death of his daughter Annie in 1851, Darwin finally lost all faith in the Christian god. He continued to support the local church and helped the parishioners in common affairs, but on Sundays, when the whole family went to church, he went for a walk. Later, when asked about his religious views, Darwin wrote that he was never an atheist, in the sense that he did not deny the existence of God and that, in general, «it would be more correct to describe my state of mind as agnostic.»
In his biography of Erasmus Darwin’s grandfather, Charles mentioned false rumors that Erasmus cried out to God on his deathbed. Charles concluded his story with the words: «Such were the Christian feelings in this country in 1802 <...> We can at least hope that nothing like this exists today.» Despite these good wishes, very similar stories accompanied the death of Charles himself. The most famous of these was the so-called «story of Lady Hope», an English preacher, published in 1915, which claimed that Darwin had undergone a religious conversion during an illness shortly before his death. Such stories were actively spread by various religious groups and eventually acquired the status of urban legends, but they were refuted by the children of Darwin and discarded by historians as false.
Marriages and children
On January 29, 1839, Charles Darwin married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood. The marriage ceremony was held in the tradition of the Anglican Church, and in accordance with Unitarian traditions. At first the couple lived on Gower Street in London, then on September 17, 1842 they moved to Down (Kent). The Darwins had ten children, three of whom died at an early age. Many of the children and grandchildren themselves have achieved significant success. Some of the children were sickly or weak, and Charles Darwin was afraid that the reason was their closeness to Emma, which was reflected in his work on the pain of inbreeding and the benefits of distant crosses.
Awards and distinctions
Darwin has received numerous awards from the scientific societies of Great Britain and other European countries. Darwin died at Downe, Kent, on April 19, 1882.
Quotes
- «There is nothing more remarkable than the spread of religious infidelity, or rationalism, during the second half of my life.»
- «There is no evidence that man was originally endowed with an ennobling belief in the existence of an omnipotent god.»
- “The more we know the immutable laws of nature, the more incredible miracles become for us.”