The book «Introduction to Psychology». Authors — R.L. Atkinson, R.S. Atkinson, E.E. Smith, D.J. Boehm, S. Nolen-Hoeksema. Under the general editorship of V.P. Zinchenko. 15th international edition, St. Petersburg, Prime Eurosign, 2007.
Article from chapter 6. Consciousness
Traditional forms of meditation follow the practice of yoga, a belief system based on the Hindu religion, or Zen, originating from Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. Among the two common methods of meditation are opening meditation, in which one clears one’s mind to receive new sensations, and concentration meditation, in which benefit is obtained through actively focusing one’s attention on some object, word, or idea. Here is a characteristic statement from the opening meditation:
This approach begins with the decision to do nothing, think of nothing, make no effort on your own, relax completely and let go of your mind and body… As you emerge from the flow of ever-changing ideas and feelings that your mind is in, see the onslaught of this flow. Refuse to dive into it. Let’s change the metaphor … watch your ideas, feelings and desires fly through the firmament of heaven, like a flock of birds. Let them fly freely. Just watch. Don’t let these birds take you to the clouds (Chauduri, 1965, pp. 30-31).
Here is the appropriate posture for concentration meditation:
The purpose of these meetings is to learn concentration. Your task is to concentrate on the blue vase. By concentration, I don’t mean analyzing the different parts of the vase, but rather trying to see the vase as it exists on its own, without any connection to other things. Eliminate all other thoughts or feelings or sounds or bodily sensations (Deikman, 1963, p. 330).
After several concentration sessions, subjects typically report a range of effects: an altered, more intense perception of the vase; some reduction in time, especially in retrospect; conflicting perceptions, as if this vase both filled the visual field and did not fill it; lessening the impact of external stimuli (less distraction and less conscious registration over time) and the impression of the state of meditation as something pleasant and rewarding.
Experimental studies of meditation give only a limited idea of the changes in consciousness that a person can achieve by continuing the practice of meditation and training for many years. Studying Matramudra, a hundreds of years old Tibetan Buddhist text, Brown (Brown, 1977) described the complex training required to master this technique. He also showed that cognitive changes can occur at different levels of meditation. (In this type of meditation, known as «focused samadhi,» one goes through five levels until one reaches a state of no thought, no perception, no self.)
Hypnosis
None of the altered states of consciousness raises more questions than hypnosis. Once associated with the occult, hypnosis has become the subject of serious scientific study. See →