Hormones – characteristics, mechanism of action and role in the body [EXPLAINED]

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Hormones are chemicals produced by glands or tissues in the endocrine system. Hormones in our body play a very important role because they regulate the activity and modify the tissues that lie around their secretion. Our body also produces hormones that affect the proper functioning of all tissues. What hormones are produced in the human body and how do they work?

What are hormones – general characteristics

By defining hormones, they can be defined as chemical carriers of information transferred between cells. This definition differs from the classical description of hormones, which describes hormones as biologically active substances released by endocrine.

Hormones are also known as bioregulators because their action is based on slowing down and stimulating individual organs. Hormones are a variety of organic compounds that are produced in the body, and their main task is to regulate and coordinate chemical processes in cells and tissues. Hormones are also responsible for all physiological processes by adapting them to the constantly changing environmental conditions.

Hormones are primarily produced by the glands. All hormones in our body together make up the endocrine system, i.e. the endocrine system. Within the endocrine system, all hormones interact with each other and can also act antagonistically to each other. An example of how two different hormones work together is adrenaline and glucagon, which together raise blood glucose. On the other hand, insulin has an antagonistic effect to the two above, as it lowers glucose. This way of action of hormones means that all the processes taking place in the human body remain in balance.

In a living cell, hormones are present in very low concentrations. Interestingly, the mechanisms of hormone action have not been fully understood yet, which is why endocrine treatment is quite difficult. However, the physiological effects of hormones on the human body and biochemical processes are well known.

As already mentioned, most of the hormones are produced in the endocrine glands. There is also a group of hormones that are formed in the tissues. These types of hormones are called tissue hormones or neurohormones. Hormones usually act on organs located next to where they are secreted, but some of them are also transported by the blood to the site of action.

Hormone synthesis is triggered by another hormone, either by a neurosecretory or by a chemical change in the body. Some of the hormones are secreted continuously, while the other part is released periodically when the body needs to do so.

Hormones play a variety of roles in the body:

1. have a general influence on the organism, e.g. growth hormones;
2. they act on a specific organ, e.g. gonadotrophins;
3. they act on a specific tissue, e.g. oxytocin on muscles.

A properly functioning endocrine system largely guarantees the patient’s comfort of life. Well, the endocrine system is responsible for many basic functions of our body, because it controls the overall metabolism throughout our lives, including:

1. constant coordination of biochemical processes;
2. maintenance of a specific internal environment;
3. regulating water management
4. regulating the osmotic pressure;
5. regulating digestive processes;
6. conduction of nervous stimuli;
7. regulating growth processes;
8. organ differentiation;
9. controlling processes related to reproductive functions, including the secretion of milk or even evoking the maternal instinct. 

If the endocrine system is functioning properly, the patient’s body is in balance. When the secretion of individual hormones is disturbed, this balance is disturbed, which disturbs the chemical and physiological balance of the human system. Endocrine diseases are a consequence of long-term disturbances in hormone secretion.

To support the endocrine system, order Hormone Balance – a natural herbal mixture for her Lorem Vit, the active ingredients of which help especially in the case of irregular, heavy menstruation or in the menopausal period.

What does an endocrinologist do? Check: Endocrinologist – what does he do?

Types of hormones

On the basis of numerous tests of hormones in vertebrates, the chemical structure of the hormones was verified, thanks to which their classification was made.

Amino acid-derived hormones:

1. tyrosine derivatives: catecholamines – adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine;
2. thyroid hormones – thyroxine and triiodothyronine;
3. tryptophan derivatives – serotonin and melatonin.

Peptide Hormones:

1. neurohormones – vasopressin, oxytocin, liberins, e.g. thyreoliberin, somatoliberin, somatostatin;
2. opioid peptides – enkephalins and endorphins;
3. enteroneurohormones secreted in the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system, e.g. vasoactive intestinal peptide, gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin;
4. pituitary hormones, e.g., corticotropin and melanotropin;
5. tissue hormones, incl. natriuretic peptides, leptin, adiponectin.

Protein hormones:

1. growth hormone;
2. prolactin?
3. thyrotropin;
4. gonadotropin;
5. insulin;
6. glucagon.

Steroid hormones:

1. adrenal cortex hormones – aldosterone, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone;
2. gonadal hormones – estrogens, progesterone and androgens.

Hormones – a historical overview

Endocrinology is a branch of medicine that dates back to the 30s and 40s. However, the endocrine glands themselves that produce hormones such as the pineal gland, pituitary, gonads and thyroid gland were known in ancient times. The other glands have already been described in modern times.

The names that are inextricably linked with endocrinology are Robert Graves and Karl von Basedow. These two doctors, one Irish and one German, were the first to describe the symptoms of hyperthyroidism, which today is classified as Graves’ disease.

While descriptions of endocrine diseases began to appear in the first half of the nineteenth century, the first hormone was not discovered until the end of that century. Polish scientists Napoleon Cybulski and Władysław Szymonowicz in 1895 discovered the first hormone, i.e. adrenaline. In their studies, they found that bilateral adrenal removal causes a significant drop in blood pressure in dogs. The decline could be prevented by injecting an aqueous extract of the adrenal medulla. This active substance was then called the adrenal gland, and is now known to us as adrenaline.

In the following years, other hormones were gradually discovered, and endocrine diseases were diagnosed and described. In 1914, thyroxine was isolated, and in 1921, insulin and pituitary growth hormone were discovered. Then the steroid hormones cortisone, thyrotropin, lutropin, corticotropin and follitropin were discovered.

Importantly, the process of discovering new hormones or chemical compounds related to them has not yet been completed. New hormones are still being isolated, especially neurohormones, i.e. tissue hormones. There are over 50 researched and known hormones in the human body.

What is worth knowing about hormones? Check: Five things you need to know about hormones

How Do Hormones Work?

The mechanism of action of hormones is based on the activation or deactivation of cellular mechanisms in tissues or target organs. The process of activation or inactivation occurs by binding to specific receptors, membrane or intracellular.

The main mechanism of action of the endocrine system is negative feedback.

The hormone secreted by the endocrine gland inhibits the endocrine gland. For example, thyroxine secreted by the thyroid gland inhibits TSH secreted by the pituitary gland. The decrease must not exceed a certain concentration limit as the negative effect decreases and more TSH is released again. Summing up, it can be stated that the endocrine system works on the principle of homeostasis and, in conjunction with each other, it can maintain the hormonal balance in the body.

How to compose your diet to ensure the body’s hormonal balance? Read: These products promote a hormonal balance. Which should you eat? [INFOGRAPHICS]

Hormones produced by the hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is the subcortical part of the brain and belongs to the diencephalon. It consists of many nuclei with a number of important functions. The hypothalamus is responsible for the balance and harmony of the whole organism, among others because it is in this part of the diencephalon that hormones important for our body are secreted:

1. thyroliberin (TRH) – is a thyrotropin releasing hormone. It belongs to the peptide hormones. The molecular weight of this hormone is 359,5 Da. It stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete thyrotropin. The release of thyreoliberin is inhibited by dopamine, while norepinephrine is responsible for its stimulation. Thyreoliberin is secreted by the hypothalamus and released into the portal vessels of the pituitary gland. This hormone acts on its front lobe and increases the content of adrenaline and norepinephrine in the blood. This hormone is also important for the central and peripheral nervous system. Research has shown that thyreoliberin is helpful in combating depression, chronic fatigue syndrome, narcolepsy, bipolar disorder, Alzheimer’s disease and epilepsy. This compound may cause side effects such as: hypotension, nausea, vomiting, dyspnoea, convulsions or allergic reactions;
2. gonadoliberyna (GnRH) – is a peptide hormone that consists of 10 amino acids. Gonadoliberin is secreted by the hypothalamus and stimulates the secretion of gonadotrophins from the anterior pituitary gland. Gonadoliberin is a neurohormone and, along with the blood, goes to the pituitary gland, from which it is then released into the bloodstream. Release is pulsatile, which in turn stimulates the secretion of gonadotrophins. The low frequency of the pulses stimulates the pituitary gland to release FSH, while the high frequency leads to the release of LH, or lutropin;
3. somatoliberyna (GHRH) – is a compound that releases growth hormone. It is a hypothalamic neuropeptide that regulates the secretion of growth hormone. In addition to the hypothalamus, somatoliberin is found in the placenta, ovaries, testes, pancreas, kidney, prostate, nipple, thymus and liver cells. Somatoliberin is responsible for the proper growth and differentiation of pituitary somatotropic cells. Its influence on the processes of wakefulness and sleep has also been confirmed. Scientists also say that somatoliberin can affect cells of the immune system because GHRH-R receptors have been located on some types of them. It is also noted that somatoliberin is involved in the processes of oncogenesis. This compound stimulates the proliferation of lung, ovary, pancreatic, glioblastoma, stomach and colon cancer cells;
4. corticoliberin (CRH) – it is a hormone that releases corticotropin. It belongs to the multi-peptide neurotransmitters. Corticoliberin is associated primarily with the body’s response to stress. This compound stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete the adrenocorticotropic hormone. Corticoliberin activates anxiety behaviors, reduces reward-enhanced behavior, and also suppresses appetite and sexual activity;
5. somatostasis (GIH) – is a hormone initially isolated from the hypothalamus, and then found in D cells of the pancreas, gastric mucosa and numerous cells of the gastrointestinal tract. It is a somatoliberin antagonist. Somatostatin blocks the secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary gland and also inhibits insulin secretion. Somatostatin is a component of drugs that are used in the treatment of gastrointestinal haemorrhage, haemorrhagic gastritis, treatment of excessive secretion from endocrine tumors, and the prevention of complications following pancreatic surgery;
6. prolactostatin or dopamine (PIH) – dopamine is one of the most recognizable hormones in the human endocrine system. It is a very important neurotransmitter. Dopamine in our body has different functions depending on the site of action. In the extrapyramidal system, it is responsible for motor drive, muscle tension and motor coordination. In the limbic system, it influences emotions, higher mental functions and motor processes. On the other hand, in the hypothalamus, it is associated with the regulation of hormone secretion, including prolactin and gonadotropins. Common dopamine is associated with the sensation of pleasure, which is not supported by reliable and credible sources. Dopamine is an ingredient in drugs, especially in drips. It is used in the prevention of acute renal failure, hypotension, septic, cardiogenic or post-traumatic shock. Dopamine does not cross the blood-brain barrier, therefore it is impossible to induce a feeling of euphoria, joy or pleasure by giving it directly to the patient;
7. melanostatyn – is a hormone that consists of the three terminal amino acids of oxytocin. Influences the inhibition of melanotropin release. The half-life in the blood after intravenous administration of melanostatin in man is approximately two minutes;
8. vasopressin – is a peptide hormone that regulates the amount of dissolved substances in the plasma. Vasopressin concentrates the urine by stimulating the absorption of water in the renal tubules. Vasopressin also causes the blood walls to constrict. This hormone also regulates platelet aggregation and normalizes the gluconeogenesis process in the liver. Both too high and too low levels of vasopressin in the body are not suitable for the patient’s health. Too little vasopressin in the blood is known as diabetes insipidus. Too much vasopressin secretion causes a number of symptoms known as SIADH, i.e. the syndrome of inadequate vasopressin secretion;
9. oxytocin – is a peptide hormone consisting of 9 amino acids. Oxytocin is responsible for the uterine contractions that occur during labor. Oxytocin is released after irritation of the nipple receptors and the receptors of the cervix and vagina. In this case, we are also dealing with the interaction of hormones. Well, estrogens enhance the secretion of oxytocin, while progesterone inhibits it. Oxytocin, depending on the state of mind, stimulates trust, jealousy, generosity, protectionism, cooperation and submission. Oxytocin is a component of drugs that are used in pregnant women before, during and after childbirth.

If you want to know more about oxytocin and its effects, read on: Oxytocin – action, functions, research. Oxytocin and childbirth

Hormones produced by the pituitary gland

The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland and its main function is to produce and secrete hormones. This gland is located inside the skull at the bottom of the pituitary gland. It consists of three parts: front, middle and back. The front and middle parts secrete hormones, while the back part only stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin. Hormones are secreted in the pituitary gland:

1. somatotropina (GH), (STH) – it’s growth hormone. The secretion of somatropin is pulsatile, and the frequency and intensity of the pulses depend on gender and age. Growth hormone secretion is stimulated by somatoliberin, while somatostatin is responsible for its inhibition. The most important role of this hormone is to stimulate weight gain and growth. Somatropin affects the carbohydrate metabolism, which induces glycogenolysis. If somatropin is secreted incorrectly, gigantism or acromegaly may develop. In turn, the lack or deficiency of this hormone in children leads to pituitary dwarfism. 
2. prolactin (PRL) – is a peptide hormone that influences the growth of the mammary glands during pregnancy and induces lactation. The action of prolactin also affects the gonads, lymphoid cells and the liver. An important task of prolactin is the inhibition of follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormones in nursing women. This action blocks ovulation and menstruation, especially in the first months after birth. Too high levels of prolactin can cause infertility. Less than 20 ng / ml is considered normal. Of course, this standard does not apply to pregnant and lactating women. Prolactin interacts with dopamine and affects the tension of the will, which is associated with sexual tension. Dopamine remains low for a long time after orgasm. This is considered to be an important mechanism for sexual gratification. The increase in prolactin secretion occurs during sleep, after surgery, after a meal, after sex, during nipple stimulation, during pregnancy or as a response to stress;
3. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) – it is a hormone whose task is to stimulate the adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroids, mineralocorticoids and androgens. The concentration of ACTH increases under stress. It should be remembered that this hormone inhibits cell proliferation, has anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties. It is used to treat Addison’s disease. At the same time, it causes side effects such as edema, circulatory disorders, allergic reactions or an increase in blood pressure;
4. hormon tyreotropowy (TSH) – is a hormone well known to people who struggle with diseases and disorders of the thyroid gland. Thyrotropin increases the mass of the thyroid gland, increases blood flow through the thyroid gland, and increases the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, i.e. thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The secretion of TSH is dependent on the thyroid hormones through negative feedback. Moreover, the secretion of this hormone is inhibited by somatostatin and dopamine. In turn, thyreoliberin, stress or cold are responsible for the increase in TSH secretion. Too high TSH levels affect female infertility, as it causes ovulation disorders. The normal concentration of thyrotropin is determined to be 0,27 to 4,2 million units per liter. However, for women of childbearing age, this indicator should be less than two. Too low TSH concentration indicates hyperthyroidism, while too high TSH concentration may indicate hypothyroidism;
5. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) – is a tropic hormone which, together with the luteinizing hormone in women, affects the maturation of the ovarian follicles and the production of estrogens. In men, follicle stimulating hormone controls testicular function. During the menopause, both women have increased levels of FSH in the blood and, therefore, in the urine. Follicle stimulating hormone is a component of drugs used by infertile women to stimulate ovulation;
6. luteinizing hormone (LH) – is a glycoprotein hormone. In men, it is responsible for the functioning of the testicular interstitial cells, which produce testosterone. In women, however, this hormone reaches its highest concentration in the last days of the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, which causes ovulation. Lutropin is responsible for the luteinization of the corpus luteum. This hormone also influences the production of progesterone and estrogen by the corpus luteum; 
7. hormon lipotropowy (LPH) – it is a hormone that comes in two forms, namely gamma lipotropin and beta lipotropin. The main task of this hormone is to enhance the digestion of fats and the release of free fatty acids into the blood.

What is lutein and how to regulate its concentration in the body? Check: lutein

Hormones produced by the pineal gland

The pineal gland is an endocrine gland. It is characterized by small size, approx. 5-8 mm long and 3-5 mm wide. Only one hormone is synthesized in the pineal gland, but it is very important for the proper functioning of the human being.

The hormone produced and secreted by the pineal gland is melatonin. It is a compound that regulates the work of the biological clock, so it coordinates circadian rhythms, including sleep and wake times.

The production of melatonin is inhibited by light. Therefore, sleeping in a lit room significantly reduces the synthesis and release of melatonin. Melatonin receptors are present in humans already in the fetal period. Before the 12th week of life, the child’s body does not produce melatonin, so the youngest do not have a specific circadian rhythm. The outline of this cycle is observed around the 20th week of a child’s life. With age, the pineal gland calcifies, which significantly reduces the synthesis of melatonin. Therefore, elderly people very often have problems with sleep, sleep during the day and wake up very early.

Melatonin is a component of drugs that are used to counteract insomnia, especially in blind people or in sleep disorders caused by changing the time zone. Melatonin can be used to treat insomnia in people over 50. For the immediate-release melatonin formulation, the following is recommended:

1. in the case of insomnia with falling asleep disorders: 5 mg 1 hour before bedtime;
2. in the case of sleep maintenance disorders: 5 mg just before going to bed.

How to deal with insomnia? Read: Seven ways to fight insomnia

Hormones produced by the thyroid gland

The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland that produces three hormones:

1. thyroxine (T4) – is the basic hormone produced by the thyroid gland. This hormone is synthesized, stored, and released by thyroid follicular cells. Thyroxine affects the oxidation processes in tissues, stimulates the breakdown of fats into glycerol and fatty acids. Additionally, its action enhances the absorption of glucose from the gastrointestinal tract. Thyroxine plays a very important role in the physical and mental development of young people, it also influences fertility and lactation. This hormone is a component of drugs used in the treatment of endocrine and metabolic diseases. Drugs in which synthetic thyroxine occurs are Euthyrox, Eltroxin or Letrox. Thyroxine deficiency indicates hypothyroidism, while its excess indicates hyperthyroidism;
2. triiodothyronine (T3) – is a hormone that is synthesized by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland, and then is stored in the form of thyroglobulin and secreted into the bloodstream. T3 has an anabolic effect. It has a bi-directional effect on fat metabolism, increases plasma lipolysis, while in adipose tissue and liver, it stimulates lipogenesis;
3. calcitonin – is produced mainly in the thyroid gland, but its presence is also detected in other organs, mainly in the central nervous system, pituitary gland, lungs, liver and gastrointestinal tract. Calcitonin lowers calcium and reduces plasma phosphate levels by inhibiting the action of osteoclasts in the bone.

If you want to know more about thyroid hormones and what diagnostics are worth doing, read on: If your thyroid could speak, what would it say?

Hormones produced by the heart

The heart is the central organ of the circulatory system. The heart-related hormone is atrial natriuretic peptide, which is synthesized by the walls of the atrium of the heart. This hormone is produced by a high concentration of sodium ions, a large amount of extracellular fluid or a large amount of blood. Atrial natriuretic peptide inhibits the reabsorption of sodium and water ions, which increases the amount of their excretion in the urine.

Atrial natriuretic peptide dilates and constricts certain blood vessels, which in turn affects the rate at which fluid is filtered in the kidneys. Under the influence of such action, urine production is accelerated. The action of this hormone reduces the risk of developing heart failure.

How is the human heart constructed? Check: Human heart – location and structure. What should you know about the heart?

Hormones produced by the liver

The liver is a multifunctional gland that is part of the digestive system. This gland performs four important functions: detoxification, metabolic, filtration and storage. The hormones that are synthesized in the liver are:

1. insulin-like growth factor (IGF) – this hormone is a polypeptide that is largely similar to insulin. It comes in two forms, IGF-1 and IGF-2. The IGF-1 form of the hormone is a growth factor that is released under the influence of growth hormone. The concentration of this hormone in the blood increases as the body grows, until aging, when levels begin to decline. It is not uncommon for tests to show elevated levels of growth factor. This could mean acromegaly, a long-term high-protein diet, delayed puberty, pregnancy, rare tumors, or an overactive thyroid gland;
2. angiotensynogen – it is a hormone which is a protein. The synthesis of angiotensinogen takes place mainly in hepatocytes. In addition, this hormone is produced in the brain, heart, kidneys, adrenal glands and blood vessel walls. Its synthesis is increased by other hormones such as corticosteroids, thyroid hormones and estrogens;
3. thrombopoietin – it is a hormone whose main task is to produce thrombocytes, which are important blood components. In addition to the liver, thrombopoietin is synthesized by skeletal muscles and the kidneys.

Does a sick liver show any symptoms? Read: Symptoms of a sick liver – how to recognize? [WE EXPLAIN]

Hormones produced by the pancreas

The pancreas is an endocrine gland that primarily secretes hormones:

1. insulin – is a hormone that is well known to people struggling with diabetes. Insulin plays a very important role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, but also of proteins and fats. The production of insulin is stimulus. It is excreted after a meal when blood glucose levels increase. Insulin improves the transport of glucose inside the cells, which lowers its level in the blood. Insulin controls numerous hormonal mechanisms that function in our body. When insulin deficiency is present, patients are often diagnosed with diabetes. Treatment of this disease consists of administering insulin to the patient, most often in the form of injections. Interestingly, insulin has been included in the list of prohibited substances and methods in sports because it is the doping agent most often used by bodybuilders;
2. glucagon – it is a hormone that significantly affects the carbohydrate metabolism. Glucagon regulates blood glucose levels, stimulating an increase in its concentration. This means that it is antagonistic to insulin. Glucagon is transported to the liver where it is stored and almost completely absorbed. A small amount of this hormone enters the bloodstream. In the case of starvation in the body, the synthesis of glucagon increases, which allows the maintenance of normal blood glucose levels. Thanks to this, our brain can still function properly. Glucagon and insulin are very important and mutually antagonistic hormones that act as the main regulators of carbohydrate metabolism in the human body;
3. somatostatic – it is a hormone that is said to be a somatoliberin antagonist. The main task of somatostatin is to block the synthesis of growth hormone and inhibit insulin secretion. Somatostatin is not only produced by the pancreas, but the places where it is synthesized are located throughout the body. It is produced by the pancreas, hypothalamus, central nervous system, thyroid and placenta. 
4. pancreatic polypeptide – is a protein whose functions have not been fully understood yet. It is certain, however, that this hormone stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and contracts the gallbladder. Pancreatic polypeptide synthesis is stimulated by nutrients. The concentration of the hormone rises after meals rich in protein. We also deal with an increase in the concentration of pancreatic polypeptide after intense physical exertion, on an empty stomach or during hypoglycemia. 

What is worth knowing about the pancreas? Check: Where is the pancreas? Causes and symptoms of pancreatic diseases

Hormones produced by the adrenal glands

The adrenal glands are paired and small endocrine glands that lie on top of the kidneys. The adrenal glands consist of cortical and core parts, which differ in structure, function and synthesized hormones.

The following are synthesized in the adrenal cortex:

1. glikokortykoidy – also known as corticosteroids, corticosteroids or glucocorticosteroids. These are steroid hormones whose main task is to regulate the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. The glucocorticoids include cortisone, cortisol and corticosterone. Too high a concentration of glucocorticoids causes hypercortisolemia, also known as Cushing’s syndrome. In turn, too low secretion of these hormones is the cause of Addison’s disease. These hormones affect the function of many important organs and at the same time participate in immune responses. Glucocorticoids are responsible for many mechanisms. Among the most important, it is worth mentioning: reducing the consumption of glucose in the tissues, inhibiting the synthesis of proteins in the body, rebuilding adipose tissue, reducing the absorption of calcium from the intestines, retaining sodium in the body, modulating immune reactions, including inhibiting the early and late immune response;
2. mineralokortykoidy – these are hormones that affect inorganic metabolism. The basic functions of this hormone are to restore the volume of extracellular fluids, restore electrolyte balance, and balance sodium and potassium; 
3. androgeny – these are sex hormones that are responsible for male physiological characteristics, including the development of male sexual organs, influence on spermatogenesis, increase muscle mass and the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Androgens are also found in women. If there is an excess of them, such disorders as excess male hair, fertility disorders, acne, seborrhea, male body structure and male pattern baldness are observed;
4. dehydroepiandrosteron – it is a steroid hormone synthesized from cholesterol. Chemically, this hormone is similar to estradiol and testosterone. The highest concentration of this hormone occurs in early adulthood, in the following years the synthesis of dehydroepiandrosterone begins to decline. The importance of this hormone for human health has not been fully established;
5. cortisol – is a steroid hormone that is commonly called the stress hormone. In fact, cortisol has an anti-inflammatory effect and retains salt in the body. This hormone also causes an increase in blood glucose, which is advisable in a stressful situation. This compound is also responsible for the release of amino acids and inhibiting the rate of their absorption by skeletal muscles. Cortisol in normal concentration is not harmful to health. However, if you have chronic high levels of cortisol in your blood, you develop Cushing’s syndrome, which can be diagnosed by thinning of the skin, stretch marks, acne and insulin resistance;
6. kortykosteron – is a steroid hormone that works very similarly to cortisol. Corticosterone stimulates the process of gluconeogenesis. 

Hormones are synthesized in the adrenal medulla:

1. adrenalina – is a hormone and neurotransmitter synthesized by the adrenal medulla and secreted at the ends of the sympathetic nervous system fibers. Adrenaline is referred to as the fear, fight and flight hormone. It is a relationship that allows you to react immediately in a situation of stress, fear or threat. The increase in concentration in the body is manifested by an accelerated heartbeat, bronchodilation, enlargement of the pupils and an increase in blood pressure. Adrenaline accelerates the heart rate, increases fat burning, inhibits intestinal peristalsis, the secretion of digestive juices and saliva. It is an insulin antagonist hormone;
2. norepinephrine – is a hormone and neurotransmitter that is usually synthesized together with adrenaline. This hormone mobilizes the brain and body to take action. The lowest concentration of norepinephrine in the body occurs during sleep, while the concentration increases by 180% when awake. The highest concentration of norepinephrine occurs in a situation of danger and danger. This hormone has a positive effect on our brain. It influences better remembering, recalling, concentration, agitation and alertness. However, it should also be remembered that its excess can lead to anxiety disorders. Noradrenaline increases the heart rate, blood pressure, reduces blood flow to the digestive system and stops the emptying of the bladder. Norepinephrine is used as a medicine that is given to the patient in the event of very low blood pressure.

What should I know about the adrenal glands? Read: Adrenal glands – characteristics, structure, functions and diseases [EXPLAINED]

Hormones produced by the kidneys

The kidneys are paired organs of the genitourinary system that play an excretory, regulatory and endocrine role in the human body. The hormones that are synthesized in the kidneys are:

1. erythropoietin (EPO) – is a peptide hormone whose most important task is to stimulate various stages of multiplication of red blood cells. This means that erythropoietin increases the number of red blood cells, hemoglobin concentration and the number of reticulocytes. Erythropoietin is used as a medicine in patients suffering from renal insufficiency;
2. kalcytriol – it is a hormone and the active form of vitamin D. This compound is responsible for controlling the body’s calcium-phosphate balance. Increases the absorption of calcium and phosphate in the digestive system. Calcitriol deficiency that occurs early in the course of chronic kidney disease influences the development of secondary hyperparathyroidism.

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