In «dependent societies» such as Japan, a person is trained to obey in a vertical system of power. The ideal of conformity is supposed to enhance each person’s self-esteem. In «independent societies» such as modern America, the newly formed ego is not expected to conform, but to move from a binding relationship to a horizontal system of power. It is assumed that it is the ideal of individualism that enhances the self-esteem of each person.
The main characteristics of addiction are connection, commitment, reciprocity, trust, continuity and involvement. Each culture or subculture defines «normal» addiction based on its own value system.
While Western thinking minimizes continuity between the living and their ancestors, dependent cultures tend to view discontinuity as a threatening factor.
Despite cultural differences, addictions share certain universal characteristics. These defining characteristics fall into three groups:
- The first group can be considered as a «negative» addiction, which delays psychosexual development, impairing the ability to cope with various life situations.
- The second group can be regarded as «positive», improving the process of maturation by helping individuals and groups to function in a way that supports their sense of well-being.
- The third group is characterized by the absence or cessation of dependency relationships, which can also delay development.