Argumentation in Negotiations: 19 Common Mistakes

We are publishing an excerpt from the book Pro: Leadership Workshop. How to maintain the mood in the team and not burn out yourself. It is dedicated to the personal development of top managers, flexible skills and leadership qualities.

Authors:

• Ivan Maurakh, leading business coach, coach at Business Relations;
• Vladimir Gerasichev, founder of the international company Business Relations;
• Arsen Ryabukha, leading business coach, coach at Business Relations.

We previously published a chapter from this book on how mindfulness and critical thinking can help you manage your business.

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Let’s use real life examples to analyze 19 main mistakes in argumentation. You will be able to apply this knowledge by transferring it to your own experience and how communication with employees is usually built.

We often resist other people’s points of view, in part because they use low quality arguments. Let me remind you that an argument is a reasoning, fact or example aimed at proving or justifying a statement. There are two main types of arguments: rhetorical and philosophical. A rhetorical argument is used to convince (or convince) an interlocutor, and a philosophical argument is used to reveal a thought. A rhetorical argument appeals to emotions, while a philosophical one relies on logic and remains valid even in isolation from the personality of the speaker, for example, if he is written down.

In order to evaluate the opponent’s statement, you need to check it for compliance with five criteria:

The argument should contain any point of view, deepen and clarify it. An argument can be a fact (“because the Earth is round”) or a logical sequence (“if A, then B”). It can have a subjective or objective form, that is, to explain personal choice or to claim to define reality.

Arguments are of various types: moral, practical, psychological, intellectual, logical, factual, and so on. Let’s look at a few examples.

Question:

Should you help the weak?

Moral argument:

Yes, because it is moral to take care of the welfare of society.

Practical argument:

No, I’ll have to waste time instead of minding my own business.

Psychological argument:

– No, because I have no desire at all.

Intelligent Argument:

— Yes, because my priority is research of those in need and analysis of the situation in the country.

Boolean argument:

– No, because this action is meaningless, you can’t help everyone anyway.

Fact based argument:

– No, because the more I give alms, the more beggars become.

I suggest you analyze the 19 most common mistakes in argumentation. Knowing them, you can easily distinguish a convincing argument from an unproven one.

1. Lack of argument

A statement includes a repetition of the concepts contained in the question or their reformulation.

Example:

Should I help a person who doesn’t want to?

No, because I don’t help people who don’t want my help.

2. An irrelevant argument

This is an argument that contains meanings that are not related to the proposed statement. There is no connection between an argument and the idea it is going to support.

Example:

— Can we expand the territory of the plant?

– No, this cannot be done, since recently the number of allergic children has increased catastrophically.

Several types of arguments not relevant to the problem:

3. Emotional Argument

I can’t wear this dress! I wear it all the time!

You have a full wardrobe!

The fact that the wardrobe is full has nothing to do with the problem – the speaker does not want to wear this particular dress.

4. Argument: an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth

– Get out of the bathroom! I need to get ready for work! I am going to be late!

“You spend all your time there when you dress up!”

The fact that a person is doing something wrong (stuck in the bathroom and going) does not excuse the other person’s mistake (being late).

5. The reverse causality argument

Why did you hit your brother?

“Because then he hit me too.

The unforeseen consequence of an action cannot justify that action, except in those moments when the consequence is known in advance.

6. Undifferentiated argument

This is an argument that can be used both to justify choosing option A and to justify choosing option B.

Is it possible to deceive the leader?

No, we are human! And we work together.

With the same success, the answer to the question may be: “Yes, we are people!” That is, the argument “We are human beings” is equally suitable for answering both “yes” and “no”.

7. Incomplete argument

This type of argument is suitable as evidence, but needs further clarification. The end of the argument is implied.

Is a person obligated to tell the truth if the one with whom he speaks is ill?

“No, because it might injure him and hurt him.

The statement contains an argument, but remains too general. It should, for example, be added that a person is weakened or more sensitive due to illness.

Is the fact that it’s written in books enough reason to believe something?

— Yes, if it is written in scientific books.

For the argument to be complete, it is necessary to explain why “scientific” is more reliable. For example, because it has been proven by experiments.

8. Controversial Argument

This is an argument whose elements are in conflict with each other. Some elements support the original assumption, others, on the contrary, refute it. The most common form of contradictory argument is the classic “yes, but…”. There is nothing that supports “yes”, while the argument following the “but” refutes the original positive answer.

Is it necessary to uphold freedom of opinion?

Everyone has the right to think what they want. But there are countries where you can go to jail if your thoughts are the opposite of what the government wants.

The author does not argue his original answer, but shows that this idea is not always applicable. He uses the fact as a counterargument to his own assumption, which proves nothing and causes confusion.

9. Change of meaning

An argument whose content diverges from the original assumption. An indirect connection or too great a discrepancy renders this argument inadequate.

Is a person obligated to tell the truth when he is hungry?

Yes, because there is nothing to be ashamed of in hunger. The statement answers the question, “Can a person tell the truth when he is hungry?” rather than the question, “Is a person obligated to tell the truth when he is hungry?” Therefore, the problem is not solved.

10. False Argument

It is usually a jumble of words, sometimes having factual or rhetorical value, and sometimes not. For example, a teacher says not to interrupt others, but she often interrupts students herself. Does she have more right to interrupt than we do?

— No, because students have to raise their hand to speak.

The fact that students have to raise their hand does not at all prove that the teacher has the right or not the right to interrupt. Lack of legitimacy proves nothing.

11. Tautology

A suggestion that attempts to justify an answer or idea by repeating it exactly or using different words.

Is it always necessary to be polite?

Yes, it’s a matter of courtesy.

You can’t justify the obligation to always be polite with politeness, which is a reformulation of the original “yes” answer using elements of the question.

– Do you remain yourself if you change culture?

— Yes, because the change of culture does not change anything in you.

The question is reformulated into a complete sentence, but no argument is given.

12. Rejection of the problem

The answer or argument does not support the problem, but explicitly or implicitly expresses disagreement with the problem.

Do you remain yourself if you change jobs?

No, because I don’t have it.

Rejection of a hypothetical question with a personal example. In this case, the argument deviates from the topic.

13. Interrogative argument

An interrogative argument is usually used to refer the problem to the original speaker. Such an argument is at best too vague, and at worst completely irrelevant.

Should I help a person who does not help others?

“No, since why should I bother helping an egoist? The question indirectly states the statement, shows the obvious answer.

14. Relativity Argument

The use of relative expressions “it depends”, “not necessarily”, “not really”, etc., without any other information that would clarify and understand the causes and consequences of this relativism. Such vague concepts are periodically used inappropriately as an answer or argument. Often used to not answer a question.

Is a person obligated to tell the truth after he has lied?

— No, it all depends on the reason for the lie.

It can be understood that the obligation to tell the truth or to lie depends on the reason for lying. But in order to give meaning to this relativity, it is necessary to explain what motives or examples will oblige us to tell or not to tell the truth.

15. Persuasion Argument

A sentence that speaks of a subjective state without offering any proof. It is usually an expression of certainty or doubt. This type of argument is more related to rhetoric, as it is aimed at persuading another.

Who took my pen?

– This is Andrei, I’m sure it’s him.

In this case, the speaker is trying to justify the statement with the help of persuasion. This type of argument usually begins with the words: “I believe that …”, “I swear that …”, “I assure you that …”, “I am sure that …”. Or it is accompanied by objective expressions: “Definitely that…” “It is exactly that…”. In such arguments, adverbs of persuasion can be found: honestly, frankly, in fact, true. All these concepts have rhetorical value, do not provide any evidence.

16. Illogical Argument

The construction of such an argument violates the elementary laws of logic. For example: inversion of cause and effect, illegitimate deduction, poorly constructed syllogisms (a logical conclusion in which a third is obtained from two given judgments, a conclusion), etc. These logical errors can be located within the argument or in relation to the argument and the statement that it supports.

Types of illogical arguments:

• opposite argument;
• irrational argument;
• logical inversion;
• defensive reaction.

How do you know that Sasha is at home?

Because he’s not at school.

The fact that Sasha is not at school does not necessarily mean that he is at home. It may be located elsewhere.

17. False foundation

The statement is treated as an indisputable general principle, which is considered obvious. The use of such an argument indicates prejudice or lack of reflection.

Should you obey your parents?

Yes, because it makes more sense.

We don’t know what “smarter” means here. The statement seems “rational” but says nothing.

18. Weak Argument

An assertion has the form and value of an argument. However, it is less meaningful than the statement that defends. The weakness of the argument may entail a problem of proportion or probability, an abuse of circumstance. A weak argument has a tendency not to get to the bottom of things.

Types of weak arguments:

• an argument based on the past;
• free hypothesis;
• summary;
• habit argument;
• alibi circumstances;
• alibi using another;
• exaggerated argument;
• minimalist argument;
• authoritarian argument;
• alibi quantities;
• abuse of justification;
• superstitious argument.

– Is the person good?

Yes, my family members help each other.

You can’t judge all people based on the behavior of a few family members. This may be called an unwarranted generalization.

19. Convoluted Argument

Is it permissible to tell a lie in order to achieve something?

– This is cowardice. This may be correct, since the intention is good.

Cowardice has a negative connotation and we cannot use this concept to prove legitimacy. The next sentence states that “the intention is good” but does not say what its “positivity” is. We have here two unfinished ideas that contradict each other.

How to train critical thinking and make informed decisions?

It’s easier to start mindfulness training by exploring and strengthening the argument. Arguments are easier to formalize, capture, and analyze than other thought processes. It can be practiced alone or with someone. Agree to ask different questions, provide answers, and practice finding strong arguments. I recommend to fix everything on paper, do not do it by ear. Without a special skill, the “memory buffer” will still not hold information for a long time. Write down the question, answer, and arguments. And then, to avoid the usual “getting personal”, you can imagine that the arguments are not yours, and impartially evaluate them.

For example:

– I didn’t write it. Our reader sent us this answer. What weaknesses can we find here?

And in this way, examine the argument from a strong-weak point of view. Then connect the interpretation process:

— Does that mean? Then categorization, then conceptualization:

Is there a confusion here? Is there a clear division? What is the point? What is the main idea? Further problematization: – What is the problem?

And then:

– What are we going to do about it? How can we solve this?

Often we can notice that the solution to problems after such a process is different, and sometimes significantly, from the decisions that we made unconsciously, “on the machine”.

The next critical thinking exercise is to take a paragraph from any piece of fiction, read it and ask yourself what is the main concept? Write it out. If you will be doing this in groups, which is always more effective, then ask a few participants to take the same paragraph and offer their hypothesis about the main concept. Discuss this with each other and see how you perceive the other person’s argument and your own. At the beginning of the practice, it is better to resort to the help of an external observer. When this skill develops, you can do it yourself.