Aging

Human aging, like the aging of other organisms, is a biological process of gradual degradation of parts and systems of the human body and the consequences of this process. While the physiology of the aging process is similar to that of other mammals, certain aspects of the process, such as mental loss, are of greater importance to humans. In addition, psychological, social and economic effects are of great importance.

For humans, aging has always had a special meaning. For centuries, philosophers have discussed the causes of aging, alchemists have been searching for the elixir of youth, and many religions have attached sacred significance to aging. However, even today the biology of the aging process is still very poorly known, and there are no methods to change the rate of human aging. Despite intensive research, scientists are still far from overcoming old age.

Today, advances in medicine and rising living standards have made it possible to significantly increase life expectancy (although the change in maximum life expectancy is negligible). In the overwhelming majority of countries, this process has led to population aging, where, due to the increasing proportion of older people who have different needs than the rest of the population, many social and economic issues related to aging have arisen in recent years.

The aging process is studied by the science of gerontology, which not only studies physiological changes, but also the place of the elderly in society. The goal of gerontology research is to overcome the possible disadvantages associated with aging.

Biology of aging

Physiology of aging

The physiological changes that occur in the human body with age are primarily expressed in a decrease in biological functions and the ability to adapt to metabolic stress. These physiological changes are usually accompanied by psychological and behavioral changes. In fact, the biological aspects of aging include not only the changes caused by aging, but also the deterioration of general health. A person at a later age is characterized by a greater vulnerability to diseases, many of which are associated with a decrease in the effectiveness of the immune system in old age. The so-called diseases of old age are thus a combination of the symptoms of aging and diseases against which the body is no longer able to fight. For example, a young person can recover quickly from pneumonia, while for an older person it can easily become fatal.

The work of many organs, such as the heart, kidneys, brain and lungs, reduces the efficiency of their work. Part of this decline is a result of the loss of cells in these organs and the reduced ability to repair them in an emergency. In addition, the cells of an elderly person are not always able to perform the same functions. Certain cellular enzymes also reduce their effectiveness, that is, the aging process occurs at all levels.

Psychology of aging

The most noticeable changes in brain function during aging are a deterioration in short-term memory and an increase in reaction speed. Both of these factors limit the opportunities for a normal existence in society and are the subject of a large number of studies. However, if an older person gets more time to solve a particular task that does not require a large amount of modern knowledge, older people are only marginally inferior to younger people. In tasks that involve vocabulary, general knowledge, and activities to which a person is accustomed, the decrease in productivity with age is almost imperceptible.

An important psychological effect of aging is classically considered to be a decrease in the level of modern knowledge associated with a deterioration in the ability to learn. Experimental studies show that although older people do learn noticeably slower than younger people, they are usually generally able to absorb new material and can remember new information as well as young people. However, learning differences increase with the complexity of the material being taught.

In addition, older people tend to be attentive and more violent in behavior and reduce the level of social contacts. But this behavioral pattern may be the result of the influence of society and social attitudes, and not aging itself. Many people who «age successfully» make some effort to keep their brains active by continuous learning and increasing social contact with people of a younger age group.

Sociology and Economics of Aging

Social aspects

The social status of each age group and its influence in society are closely related to the economic productivity of this group. In agrarian societies, the elderly have a high status and are the object of attention. Their life experiences and knowledge are highly valued, especially in pre-literate societies where knowledge is passed down orally. The need for their knowledge allows older people to continue to be productive members of society.

In societies with a high level of industrialization and urbanization, the status of older people has changed markedly, reducing the importance of older people, and in some cases even reaching a negative attitude towards old people — ageism. It turns out that the physical inability of older people to work has a relatively small role, and several other factors are responsible for the loss of significance. Among them, the greatest role is played by the constant introduction of new technologies that require continuous education and training, which are less accessible to old people. Of lesser importance is the large number of still fairly strong old workers, which limits the employment opportunities of the new generation and the reduction in the number of people who work for themselves, which could give the old people the opportunity to gradually reduce the number of jobs. In connection with the general increase in the level of education, the experience of older people, on the contrary, plays an ever smaller role.

Although older people are still highly active in some areas, such as in politics, in general, older people are increasingly retiring after their most productive period of life, which leads to problems of psychological adaptation to new conditions. First of all, problems appear in connection with a decrease in the influence of old people, a sense of their own lack of demand and the presence of a significant amount of free time. In addition, for a large number of people, financial problems become more acute in old age, although in many cases these problems fall on society.

Due to the availability of free time, family relationships are more likely to be the center of attention of older people. However, due to changes in family structure in industrialized countries, large families have been divided and older people are increasingly not living near their children and other relatives. Because of this, societies face the problem of greater adaptability of older people to an independent existence.

An important factor in the sociology of aging is sexual and reproductive activity. In industrialized countries, men continue to become fathers even at the age of 65 and older.

Older people are characterized by resistance to change, although to a greater extent this is explained not by an inability to adapt, but by an increase in tolerance. To help the adaptability of older people to new conditions, special training programs are being developed that are designed for this category of people.

Economic aspects

With the decline in the ability to perform most types of work in industrialized societies, older people are gradually losing their sources of income. Thus, they must rely on their own savings, the help of children and society. Due to less confidence in the future, older people tend to save and invest instead of spending on consumer goods. At the state level, the old population is withdrawing from the labor force, increasing the burden on active workers and paving the way for industrial automation.

State social programs that help the elderly to exist in society have existed at a certain level since the time of the Roman Empire. In medieval Europe, the first law on the responsibility of the state towards the elderly was passed in England in 1601. Pensions proper were first introduced in 1880 by Otto von Bismarck in Germany. Today, most states have some form of welfare programs for senior citizens. While these government programs ease the burden of old age, they do not bring older people to the income levels of younger people.

Health protection

Although the physiological effects of aging differ among individuals, the body as a whole becomes vulnerable to numerous diseases, especially chronic ones, with the onset of old age, requiring more time and money for treatment. Since the Middle Ages and Antiquity, the average life expectancy in Europe has been estimated at between 20 and 30 years. Today, life expectancy has increased significantly, resulting in an increasing percentage of the elderly. As a result, cancers and heart diseases typical of the elderly have become much more common.

The increasing cost of medical care causes certain problems both among the elderly themselves and for societies that create special institutions and targeted programs aimed at helping the elderly. Many developed countries expect a significant aging of the population in the near future, and therefore are worried about increasing costs to maintain the quality of health care at an appropriate level. Actions to overcome this problem include improving the efficiency of the health care system, more targeted care, supporting alternative health care organizations and influencing the demographic situation.

Cultural Variations

There is a lot of variation between countries both in the definition of aging and in attitudes towards it. For example, the retirement age varies between countries, ranging from 55 to 70 years. First of all, this difference is explained by differences in the average life expectancy and working capacity of older people. In addition, as noted above, there are significant differences between industrial and traditional agrarian societies. Whereas in the former the importance of old people is insignificant, in the latter old age is a sign of wisdom, and old people have a great influence on society.

Legal Aspects

Although in most states some rights and obligations are granted to a person from a certain age (such as the right to vote, the right to buy alcohol, or criminal liability), it is common for older people to lose some rights. A typical example is the right to drive a car, which in many countries is limited by a maximum age (usually 70-75 years).

«Successful Aging»

In Western countries, the concept of “successful aging” is gaining popularity these days, which determines how aging should proceed in the best way, using modern achievements in medicine and gerontology. This concept can be traced back to the 1950s, but was popularized in Rowe and Kahn’s 1987 work. According to the authors, previous studies of old age have exaggerated the extent to which diseases such as diabetes or osteoporosis can be attributed to old age, and have criticized research in gerontology for exaggerating the homogeneity of the individuals studied.

In the following publication, the authors defined the concept of «successful aging» as a combination of the following factors that should accompany aging:

1. Low likelihood of illness or disability;
2. High opportunities for learning and physical activity;
3. Active participation in society.

These goals can be achieved both with the help of society and through the known efforts of older people to learn and maintain social ties, especially with people of a younger age group.

Demographics of Aging

The main demographic effect of advances in medicine and a general improvement in living conditions over the past century has been a drop in mortality and a significant increase in life expectancy. In addition, the birth rate in most countries of the world is declining, which leads to the so-called population agingespecially in the developed countries of the world.

The age composition of the population is usually depicted in the form of age-sex pyramids, in which the proportion of the population at each age is depicted depending on age. On such pyramids, population aging looks like an increase in the proportion of older people at the top of the pyramid at the expense of younger people at the bottom. The aging process, therefore, can be of two types: «aging from below», or a decrease in fertility, and «aging from above», or an increase in average life expectancy. In most countries of the world, aging from below is the larger of the two factors, while in post-Soviet countries, including Ukraine, it is the only one. In Ukraine, for example, population aging is partly offset by falling life expectancy, both due to deteriorating health care and increasing social inequality, and due to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. In the whole world, according to the UN, the percentage of the population over 60 years old was 8% in 1950, 10% in 2000, and is expected to be 21% in 2050.

Population aging has a significant impact on society. Older people are more likely to save money instead of spending it on consumer goods. This results in significant deflationary pressure on the economy. Some economists, especially Japanese ones, see advantages in this process, in particular the possibility of introducing industrial automation without the threat of increasing unemployment and solving the problem of overpopulation. However, the negative effect is manifested in the system of social security and pensions, which in many countries, mainly in Europe, are financed by taxes on the working part of the population, which is constantly decreasing. In addition, there is a significant impact on education, which is manifested both in a decrease in public spending and in a deterioration in the overall level of literacy due to the reduced ability of an aging population to adapt to rising standards. Thus, the control of population aging and the adaptation of society to new conditions are the most important tasks of demographic policy.

Attempts to increase life expectancy

The main direction of research in geronology (the so-called biomedical gerontology) are attempts to increase life expectancy, especially in humans. A marked increase in life expectancy is already happening on a global scale, driven by factors such as general improvements in health care and higher living standards. At the individual level, increasing life expectancy is possible through proper diet, exercise, and avoidance of potentially toxic factors such as smoking. However, most of these factors are not aimed at overcoming aging, but only “accidental” mortality (the Meikham term in the Gompertz-Makham law), which already today constitutes a small proportion of mortality in developed countries, and thus this approach has limited potential to increase life expectancy.

There are several possible strategies by which researchers hope to reduce the rate of aging and increase life expectancy. For example, lifespan is increased by up to 50% as a result of calorie restriction in a diet that remains generally healthy in many animals, including some mammals (rodents). Although the impact of this factor on the lifespan of humans and other primates has not yet been discovered, the known data are still insufficient, and research continues. Others rely on tissue rejuvenation with stem cells, organ replacement (artificial organs or organs grown for this purpose, for example, through cloning) or chemical and other methods (antioxidants, hormone therapy) that would affect the molecular repair of body cells . However, at the moment, significant progress is still not achieved and it is not known when, in years or decades, there will be significant progress in this industry.

The question of whether life expectancy should be extended is now a matter of much debate at the political level, with the main opposition predominantly made up of representatives of some religious concessions. A number of public (RTD, WTA) and religious (Raelites) organizations are actively supporting work to significantly increase human life expectancy.

The oldest person

• 138 years — Man Habib Mian (Habib Mian), who lived in the Alwar region, the oldest inhabitant of the planet died
• 113 years old (18.09.2008/2007/18.09.2008) Tomoji Tanabe, the Japanese island of Kyushu, entered the Guinness Book of Records as the oldest man in 113. (XNUMX) Today is the XNUMXth birthday of the oldest person in the world
• 116 years old (2.02.2007/15/2007) March 2.02.2007, 116 Grigory Nestor (Stary Yarychev village, Lviv region. (XNUMX/XNUMX/XNUMX) The oldest person on the planet is a XNUMX-year-old Ukrainian

references

• Britannica: Human Aging
• Britannica: Old Age
• Encarta: Aging